The Online Actos Blog

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Etymologically the vocabulary of the English
language is far from being homogenous. It
consists of two layers - the native stock of
words and the borrowed stock of words.
Numerically the borrowed stock of words is
considerably larger than the native stock of
words.

In fact native words comprise only 30% of
the total number of words in the English
vocabulary but the native words form the bulk
of the most frequent words actually used in
speech and writing. Besides, the native words
have a wider range of lexical and grammatical
valency, they are highly polysemantic and
productive in forming word clusters and set
expressions.

Borrowed words or
loanwords are words taken from another
language and modified according to the patterns
of the receiving language.

In many cases a borrowed word especially one
borrowed long ago is practically
indistinguishable from a native word without a
thorough etymological analysis. The number of
the borrowings in the vocabulary of the
language and the role played by them is
determined by the historical development of the
nation speaking the language.

The most effective way of borrowing is
direct borrowing from another language as the
result of the contacts with other nations.
Though, a word may be also borrowed indirectly
not from the source language but through
another language.

When analyzing borrowed words one should
distinguish between two terms - source of
borrowing and origin of
borrowing. The first term is applied to
the language from which the word was
immediately borrowed and the second - to the
language to which the word may be ultimately
traced. The closer the two interacting
languages are in structure the easier it is for
words of one language to penetrate into the
other.

There are different approaches to
classifying the borrowed stock of words.

The borrowed stock of words may be
classified according to the nature of the
borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans
translation and semantic
loans.

Loan translation or calque
is a phrase borrowed from another language by
literal word-for-word translation.

Semantic loan is the borrowing of
the meaning for a word already existing in the
English language.

Latin loans are classified into the
subgroups.

1. Early Latin loans. Those are the
   words which came into English language through
   the languages of the Anglo-Saxon tribes. The
   tribes had been in contact with Roman
   civilization and had adopted many Latin words
   denoting objects belonging to that civilization
   long before the invasion of the Angles, Saxons
   and Judes into Britain (e.g., cup, kitchen,
   mill, wine, port).
2. Later Latin borrowings. To this
   group belong the words which penetrated into
   English language in the sixth and seventh
   centuries, when the English people were
   converted to Christianity (e.g., priest,
   bishop, nun, and candle).
3. The third period of the Latin
   borrowings includes words which came into
   English due to two historical events: the
   Norman Conquest and the Renaissance. Some came
   to English language through French but some
   were borrowed directly from Latin (e.g., major,
   minor, intelligent, permanent).
4. The latest layer of Latin words.
   The words of this period are mainly abstract
   and scientific words (e.g., nylon, molecular,
   vaccine, phenomenon, and vacuum).

The tendency of the English language to
borrow extensively can be traced during the
centuries. Thus, one can confidently claim that
borrowing is one of the most productive sources
of enrichment of the English vocabulary.

Linda Correli is a staff writer of http://www.customresearchpapers.us/ and an author of the popular online tutorial for students “What Teachers Want: Master the Art of Essay Writing in 10 Days”, available at http://www.go2essay.com/.

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Several factors make learning Chinese a considerably more formidable task than learning another Germanic or Romance languages. Studying a foreign language is an excellent way for English and other language teachers to improve their own teaching. It also forces you into the role of a student so you can experience first hand the problems, difficulties and challenges your EFL learners face in your classes. Don’t believe me? Then look at what happened to me …

Greeting the language learning students with a cheerful “Ni Hao” (Hello), our teacher, Shutzng Zhang begins the second class session of the Santiago de Cali University’s first - ever course in Mandarin. The spartan class room contains a map of China - in Chinese of course, tacked to one side wall, desks, a small table, and white board. There are two worksheets with the vocabulary of greetings written in Chinese characters on her desk. We greet the teacher in return. She wishes to be called “Susana” to spare us the tongue-twisting pronunciation of her Chinese first name. She speaks Spanish fairly well but her English is considerably more advanced. Explanations are done in Spanish to accommodate the class majority.

Practice with vowels follows:

a, o, e, i, u, u

There are 11 Spanish-speaking adult students in the first week of the group. Each in turn tries their hand at getting their pronunciation of vowels and greetings phrases to an acceptable level. Then some consonants follow:

n, t, h, m, x, j, z

As I’d expected, there are more than a few problems in teaching the tonal sounds of Mandarin to speakers of a non-tonal language. Yiu Wing Fung, a Chinese man, has more trouble than others in the group. “Why is he here”, I wonder?

A series of common greetings is written on the white board with the Spanish transcribed underneath. I instantly want to make up (or have the teacher make) flash cards to give me something to study and practice. I make a mental note to ask later. I do ask for and get copies of two key pages of the phrases written on the board. I’ll make flash cards from these later on. That’ll do for a start at least.

Next, the pronouns are written on the board in singular and plural. They’re remarkably similar:

Wu, ni, ta - then ta, ta, nin

There are differences in the pronunciation tones to distinguish them, but I produce my own little chart in singular and plural.

Then the other shoe drops. We get to the tones in earnest. It’s like doing the musical scales. High, low, short, long, up and down. There are going to be three tonal values I think; high, medium and low. I’m wrong. There are five: first tone, second tone, third tone, fourth tone and no tone. Each student runs through their “version” of the pronunciation. Sometimes our young teacher giggles. Other times she simply shakes her head and has the student try again. From the look on her face, we know our speech is bad. We’ll need a tape recording of the pronunciations. Without it there’s no way to check, practice and mimic the tonal sounds. It’s a time-consuming but necessary process.

How do you ask, “Do you love me?” one of the ladies asks. In response, the answer; “I love you” along with “I love you too.” Are written and practiced by the class next. The five ladies in the class are thrilled and amused, blushing as they practice the phrases. “This isn’t foe me”, I think, but decide to stick it out another couple of weeks. Maybe with some practice and help I’ll make some progress and develop more enthusiasm.

Some photocopied sheets with the words and phrases on them would help. So would a practice tape recording of the sounds, pronunciation and tones. The spoken language and its related listening comprehension development need more than the cursory “twice a week” class attendance sessions to practice. We need much more exposure than that to internalize elements of the language.

A description with drawings of how Chinese characters are derived proves more interesting for us. For example, the character “sun” plus the character “moon” means “light” or “illumination”. Now we’re getting somewhere.

… Continued in Part 2 …

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An active life can make it troublesome to read all the titles you would like to. Extended journey times to work and other activities may eat up sizable amounts of time without you recognizing it. Favorite interests get set to the side for more pressing chores. It’s easy to simply use the time spent commuting to get up to date on those books you don’t have time to read. With user friendly technology, you can spoil yourself with Science Of Being Great by Wallace D. Wattles for sale from Download Audio Book Online, or audio-books told beautifully by Brad Meltzer when you are driving. Making the most of your time has become a way-of-life in today’s frantic world. Audio-books such as Dress Your Family In Corduroy And Denim by David Sedaris for sale from Download Audio Book Online fill the dead hours in life, whether it is time passed waiting in a doctor’s office or buying groceries. A huge variety of audio-books can be downloaded right now as mp3 files including Pimsleur Chinese (Mandarin) I Complete Course by Dr. Paul Pimsleur, so pick up your mp3 player you have the chance to listen to the latest whodunnit, such as audio-books penned by Kate White without hauling a cumbersome book with you. Another benefit of audiobooks is renting or purchasing the instructional book of your choice then enjoying it in your own time. Do you wish to study another language? Try audio books! Perhaps innovative commercial practices are your thing, or you can enjoy meditating on modern opinions in religious thought.

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